the history of Korean alcohol production
reference 1: gojoseon and other early kingdoms
Gojoseon: Old Korea
The semi-mythological account of the founding of the first formal Korean state goes like this:
Hwanung, the son of Hwanin (god of the heavens), descended to Mount Taebaek, accompanied by his ministers of wind, rain, and clouds to found Sinsi city—the city of the gods—to rule humankind. One day, a bear prayed to Hwanung and asked to become a human (why, I have no idea). Hwanung granted her wish, and she became a woman named Ung-nyeo, bear-woman. They married each other, and Ung-nyeo gave birth to a son named Dangun, who came to rule the Joseon kingdom.
*the prefix “go” meaning “old” was appended later on by historians to distinguish this kingdom from the Joseon Dynasty founded in 1392 CE.
13th century sources—the earliest Korean sources currently available—sets the founding of Gojoseon by Dangun at exactly 2333 BCE, dating Korean history at least as far back as Chinese history (see: the first Chinese mythical emperor Yao dated at 2333 BCE).
Gojoseon had the most advanced culture, technology, and political society in the Korean peninsula at the time, and its comparative strength paved the way for the more centralized states that would come later on. Sophisticated bronzesmithing propelled Gojoseon into a power that rivaled China by about 5th century BCE, and by the 4th century it had grown into a major power in Northeast Asia due to its advanced ironsmithing technology and military prowess, over time securing territories stretching from the Liao River down to Daedong River all the way across Manchuria.
Dangun, son of the sky god and Bear-woman
Gojoseon’s culture flourished from early on. Although many cultural elements were initially imported from China, Gojoseon’s political system, social customs and laws were distinct from those of China. An ancient Chinese book titled Hansuh (漢書) records that the laws of Gojoseon, called the Code of Eight Articles, dealt with matters such as murder, theft, and assault. It was said that Gojoseon was so safe, doors were simply left unlocked.
In 1909, to bolster postcolonial nationalistic pride, the founding date of Gojoseon (Gae-cheon, when Hwanung descended from heaven to live with mankind) was officially designated as National Foundation Day, and the holiday is still celebrated in both North and South Korea today on October 3. The capital of Gojoseon is thought to be what became modern-day Pyeongyang.
the fall of Gojoseon and wars with China
The growing strength of Gojoseon did eventually sour relationships with China, and in the end, Emperor Wu of Han China invaded, and the country fell to China in 108 BC.
Four Chinese Commanderies were set up in the former territory of Gojoseon, all of which fell to resistance by the people of Korea by 313 CE. The traditions of Gojoseon were passed down to Goguryeo, the spiritual and cultural heir of the nation of Gojoseon. Three of the Chinese commanderies fell to local resistance within a few decades, but the last, Nakrang, remained an important commercial and cultural outpost until it was consumed (and by all evidence razed) by expanding Goguryeo forces in 313 CE.
From the September 2024 issue
bronze age technology of Gojoseon
The timeframe of the beginning of the Bronze Age is under some dispute; estimates range from 13th to 8th centuries BCE, with the most common being around 1000 BCE. This coincides with archaeological evidence for the timing of the rise of Gojoseon, and archaeological evidence exhibits unique styles, techniques, material composition, and end products compared to others in the region, especially in ritual objects.
At least by the 7th century BCE bronzesmithing and Bronze Age material culture was flourishing on the Korean peninsula, and Gojoseon’s ascension to military power seems to go hand in hand with a unique type of bronze weaponry, the mandolin-shaped blade or 비파형동검, 琵琶形銅劍. The mandolin-shape dagger is found in the regions of Liaoning, Hebei, and Manchuria down to the Korean Peninsula. It suggests the existence of Gojoseon outposts and far-reaching military conquests.
Although geographically not within Gojoseon, the Mumun pottery period is an archaeological period coinciding around the Gojoseon nation, the Korean Bronze Age and part of the Japanese Yayoi period, around 1500-300BCE. It followed the Jeulmeun pottery period which supported hunter-gather living and small-scale plant cultivation.
The name Mumun comes from the Korean term for the undecorated appearance of the pottery produced during this time; the style of this pottery indicated significant advancements in kiln technology, making possible sturdier pottery with thicker walls in a wider variety of shapes. This enabled the production of improved wares that supported more intensive agriculture, including both dry- and wet-field agriculture which still supports Korean traditional alcohol production to this day. Rice cultivation saw particularly extensive growth in the lower parts of Korea and Manchuria between 1900 BCE to 200 CE.
Gojoseon-era pottery advancements: 민무늬토기 시대
Giza Joseon
Giza Joseon is a comparatively minor country initially documented in the 12th century source, Samguk Sagi (삼국사기, the History of the Three Kingdoms) by Kim Busik; the 13th century source Samguk Yusa (삼국유사, the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) by Il-Yeon; and the 13th century historical epic ballad Jewang Ungi (제왕운기 the Song of Kings and Emperors). It’s said to have been founded by Giza (Jizi in Chinese), a semi-mythical Chinese sage.
Perhaps the most important historiographical aspect of Giza Joseon seems to have been that, at least early on, Giza was hailed as a cultural hero that elevated Korean culture and indeed, was the Chinese “bearer of civilization”. Most of this almost worshipful reverence of Giza seems to have been a product of the Joseon Dynasty founded in 1392 (a major aside being the 1102 mausoleum built for Giza). Joseon Dynasty’s state ideology was Neo-Confucianism which was a Chinese import, so the Chinese sage Giza was hailed as a champion of culture who had elevated Korean culture at its nascence.
It’s something I had to grow out of myself, but it’s always been quite saddening to see how Koreans have felt the need to latch on to external powers that they see as greater in order to claim a level of cultural elevation and legitimacy. Although Korean scholars became more critical of the veneration of Gija as early as the 18th century and this academic trend has continued in both North and South Korea ever since, by that point it had become interlaced into the fabric of Korean cultural identity to the point where there are Korean clans who still currently claim to be direct descendants of Gija himself.
The current academic consensus highly limits Gija’s involvement in Gija Joseon, and archeology seems to support this consensus as the artifacts found in the region maintain uniquely Korean traits with uniquely Korean origins.
other nations of this period
Wiman Joseon 위만, 魏滿朝鮮
In 194 BCE, the ruling dynasty of Gojoseon was overthrown by Wi Man, a former military commander and refugee from the Han vassal state of Yan, who then established the Wiman Dynasty of Gojoseon. He is the first ruler in Korean history to have been directly recorded in surviving contemporary documents from other states—Records of the Grand Historian and the Book of Han.
In 108 BCE, the Han Dynasty, under Emperor Wu, invaded and conquered Wiman Joseon. The Han established commanderies to administer the former Gojoseon territory, and after the fragmentation of the Han Empire during the 3rd century and the subsequent chaotic 4th century, the area escaped Chinese control and was conquered by Goguryeo in 313 CE.
Samhan, or Three Han, is the collective name of the Byeonhan, Jinhan, and Mahan confederacies that emerged in the first century BCE just before and directly after the fall of Wiman Joseon, in English known as the proto-Three Kingdoms Period. Located in the central and southern part of the peninsula, the Samhan confederacies were absorbed in pieces over time into the Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla kingdoms, ushering in the 삼국시대, the classical Three Kingdoms of Korea.
Some historians have suggested that the word Han might have been pronounced as Gan or Kan. The Silla language had a usage of this word for king or ruler as found in the words 마립간 (麻立干; Maripgan) and 거서간 / 거슬한 (居西干 / 居瑟邯; Geoseogan / Geoseulhan). Alexander Vovin suggests this word is related to the Mongolian Khan and Manchurian Han meaning ruler.
The Samhan are generally considered loose confederations of walled-town states. Each had a ruling elite, with a mix of political and shamanistic power, but there doesn’t seem to have been a system of hereditary succession. Archaeological evidence of settlements, villages, and even fortresses have usually been found in valleys buried deep in tall mountains for security from attack.
As for most civilizations, water routes were the primary method of long distance transportation. While Mahan was the largest and earliest developed of the three, Jinhan and Byeonhan became prominent in international trade in their time due to their key locations along the Nakdong River valley.
Nakdong River on Google Earth. Play around with the controls to get a sense of location and scale!
While the earliest evidence of iron implements found in the Korean peninsula date back to the 4th century, the Samhan period saw the growth of iron production in the southern Korean peninsula. Byeonhan in particular thrived in iron production, and exported examples of their iron armor and weaponry have been found throughout Northeast Asia. Naturally, ironsmithing was a key development in agriculture, and around this time modern-day Jeolla grew as a center of rice production.
The overall trade relationship between Samhan and the Chinese commanderies of former Gojoseon was a political trading system in which material tributes were exchanged for titles or prestige. The commanderies supplied luxury goods and consumed local products, and while Han dynasty coins and beads have been found throughout the Korean peninsula evidencing trade, iron ingots became standard currency around Jinhan and Byeonhan after about the 2nd century CE.
Trade relations also existed with the emergent states of Japan, most commonly involving the exchange of ornamental Japanese bronzeware for Korean iron. In the third century these relations shifted when the Yamatai federation of Kyūshū took monopolistic control over Japanese trade with Byeonhan.
Although kings and officials were at the center of power, these states were confederated kingdoms. Regional chieftains ruled with their own bureaucratic organization and power apparatus. Every year, the kingdoms held heaven-worshipping ceremonies: one after the spring sowing season to pray for a good crop, and one in the autumn to celebrate the harvest. The people sang and danced, and prisoners were pardoned during these festive events which also served to strengthen communal spirit as well as to pray to the heavens.